ReservoirTTA: Prolonged Test-time Adaptation for Evolving and Recurring Domains

This paper introduces ReservoirTTA, a novel plug-in framework designed for prolonged test-time adaptation (TTA) in scenarios where the test domain continuously shifts over time, including cases where domains recur or evolve gradually. At its core, ReservoirTTA maintains a reservoir of domain-specialized models—an adaptive test-time model ensemble—that both detects new domains via online clustering over style features of incoming samples and routes each sample to the appropriate specialized model, and thereby enables domain-specific adaptation.

This multi-model strategy overcomes key limitations of single model adaptation, such as catastrophic forgetting, inter-domain interference, and error accumulation, ensuring robust and stable performance on sustained non-stationary test distributions.

Our theoretical analysis reveals key components that bound parameter variance and prevent model collapse, while our plug-in TTA module mitigates catastrophic forgetting of previously encountered domains.

Extensive experiments on scene-level corruption benchmarks (ImageNet-C, CIFAR-10/100-C), object-level style shifts (DomainNet-126, PACS), and semantic segmentation (Cityscapes→ACDC) — covering recurring and continuously evolving domain shifts — show that ReservoirTTA substantially improves adaptation accuracy and maintains stable performance across prolonged, recurring shifts, outperforming state-of-the-art methods. Our code is publicly available at https://github.com/LTS5/ReservoirTTA.